The Past, Present, and Future of the Brain Imaging Data Structure (BIDS).

The Brain Imaging Data Structure (BIDS) is a community-driven standard for the organization of data and metadata from a growing range of neuroscience modalities. This paper is meant as a history of how the standard has developed and grown over time. We outline the principles behind the project, the mechanisms by which it has been extended, and some of the challenges being addressed as it evolves. We also discuss the lessons learned through the project, with the aim of enabling researchers in other domains to learn from the success of BIDS.

Open and reproducible neuroimaging: From study inception to publication.

Empirical observations of how labs conduct research indicate that the adoption rate of open practices for transparent, reproducible, and collaborative science remains in its infancy. This is at odds with the overwhelming evidence for the necessity of these practices and their benefits for individual researchers, scientific progress, and society in general. To date, information required for implementing open science practices throughout the different steps of a research project is scattered among many different sources. Even experienced researchers in the topic find it hard to navigate the ecosystem of tools and to make sustainable choices. Here, we provide an integrated overview of community-developed resources that can support collaborative, open, reproducible, replicable, robust and generalizable neuroimaging throughout the entire research cycle from inception to publication and across different neuroimaging modalities. We review tools and practices supporting study inception and planning, data acquisition, research data management, data processing and analysis, and research dissemination. An online version of this resource can be found at https://oreoni.github.io. We believe it will prove helpful for researchers and institutions to make a successful and sustainable move towards open and reproducible science and to eventually take an active role in its future development.

Centering inclusivity in the design of online conferences-An OHBM-Open Science perspective.

As the global health crisis unfolded, many academic conferences moved online in 2020. This move has been hailed as a positive step towards inclusivity in its attenuation of economic, physical, and legal barriers and effectively enabled many individuals from groups that have traditionally been underrepresented to join and participate. A number of studies have outlined how moving online made it possible to gather a more global community and has increased opportunities for individuals with various constraints, e.g., caregiving responsibilities. Yet, the mere existence of online conferences is no guarantee that everyone can attend and participate meaningfully. In fact, many elements of an online conference are still significant barriers to truly diverse participation: the tools used can be inaccessible for some individuals; the scheduling choices can favour some geographical locations; the set-up of the conference can provide more visibility to well-established researchers and reduce opportunities for early-career researchers. While acknowledging the benefits of an online setting, especially for individuals who have traditionally been underrepresented or excluded, we recognize that fostering social justice requires inclusivity to actively be centered in every aspect of online conference design. Here, we draw from the literature and from our own experiences to identify practices that purposefully encourage a diverse community to attend, participate in, and lead online conferences. Reflecting on how to design more inclusive online events is especially important as multiple scientific organizations have announced that they will continue offering an online version of their event when in-person conferences can resume.

Brainhack: Developing a culture of open, inclusive, community-driven neuroscience.

Brainhack is an innovative meeting format that promotes scientific collaboration and education in an open, inclusive environment. This NeuroView describes the myriad benefits for participants and the research community and how Brainhacks complement conventional formats to augment scientific progress.

Resolving multisensory and attentional influences across cortical depth in sensory cortices.

In our environment, our senses are bombarded with a myriad of signals, only a subset of which is relevant for our goals. Using sub-millimeter-resolution fMRI at 7T, we resolved BOLD-response and activation patterns across cortical depth in early sensory cortices to auditory, visual and audiovisual stimuli under auditory or visual attention. In visual cortices, auditory stimulation induced widespread inhibition irrespective of attention, whereas auditory relative to visual attention suppressed mainly central visual field representations. In auditory cortices, visual stimulation suppressed activations, but amplified responses to concurrent auditory stimuli, in a patchy topography. Critically, multisensory interactions in auditory cortices were stronger in deeper laminae, while attentional influences were greatest at the surface. These distinct depth-dependent profiles suggest that multisensory and attentional mechanisms regulate sensory processing via partly distinct circuitries. Our findings are crucial for understanding how the brain regulates information flow across senses to interact with our complex multisensory world.

How prior expectations shape multisensory perception.

The brain generates a representation of our environment by integrating signals from a common source, but segregating signals from different sources. This fMRI study investigated how the brain arbitrates between perceptual integration and segregation based on top-down congruency expectations and bottom-up stimulus-bound congruency cues. Participants were presented audiovisual movies of phonologically congruent, incongruent or McGurk syllables that can be integrated into an illusory percept (e.g. "ti" percept for visual «ki¼ with auditory /pi/). They reported the syllable they perceived. Critically, we manipulated participants' top-down congruency expectations by presenting McGurk stimuli embedded in blocks of congruent or incongruent syllables. Behaviorally, participants were more likely to fuse audiovisual signals into an illusory McGurk percept in congruent than incongruent contexts. At the neural level, the left inferior frontal sulcus (lIFS) showed increased activations for bottom-up incongruent relative to congruent inputs. Moreover, lIFS activations were increased for physically identical McGurk stimuli, when participants segregated the audiovisual signals and reported their auditory percept. Critically, this activation increase for perceptual segregation was amplified when participants expected audiovisually incongruent signals based on prior sensory experience. Collectively, our results demonstrate that the lIFS combines top-down prior (in)congruency expectations with bottom-up (in)congruency cues to arbitrate between multisensory integration and segregation.

Noxious stimulation excites serotonergic neurons: a comparison between the lateral paragigantocellular reticular and the raphe magnus nuclei.

The present study was designed to record electrophysiological responses to graded noxious thermal stimuli of serotonergic and nonserotonergic neurons in the lateral paragigantocellular reticular (LPGi) and the raphe magnus (RMg) nuclei in rats. All of the neurons recorded were juxtacellularly filled with neurobiotin and identified with double immunofluorescent labeling for both neurobiotin and serotonin. Under halothane anesthesia (0.75%), noxious thermal stimuli ⩾48°C activated almost all (88%) of the serotonergic neurons located within the LPGi (n=16). The increase in firing was clear (3.4±0.3spike/s: mean of responses above the population median) and sustained during the whole application of strong thermal noxious stimuli, with a high mean threshold (48.3±0.3°C) and large receptive fields. Recording of serotonergic neurons in the RMg (n=21) demonstrated that the proportion of strongly activated (>2spike/s) neurons (19% vs 59% for the LPGi) as well as the magnitude of the activation (2.1±0.4spike/s: mean of responses above the population median) to thermal noxious stimuli were significantly lower than in the LPGi (P<.05). Within the boundaries of both the LPGi and the RMg (B3 group), nonserotonergic neurons were also predominantly excited (75%) by noxious stimuli, and the resulting activation (7.9±1.2spike/s) was even greater than that of serotonergic neurons. Thermal noxious stimuli-induced activation of LPGi serotonergic cells probably plays a key role in serotonin-mediated modulations of cardiac baroreflex and transmission of nociceptive messages occurring under such intense noxious conditions.

Inhibition of cardiac baroreflex by noxious thermal stimuli: a key role for lateral paragigantocellular serotonergic cells.

The present study was designed to identify the neuronal mechanisms causing cardiac baroreflex inhibition associated with thermal nociception in rats. Under urethane-anesthesia, noxious thermal stimuli > or = 48 degrees C were found to inhibit the cardiac baroreflex, whereas noxious stimuli < or = 46 degrees C had no effect. Using double immunohistochemical labeling, noxious stimuli > or = 48 degrees C were found to evoke primarily a strong expression of Fos protein (Fos) encoded by c-fos gene in serotonergic neurons of lateral paragigantocellular reticular nucleus (LPGi). Noxious stimuli < or = 46 degrees C did not evoke Fos expression in any serotonergic neurons of the brainstem. Local blockade of neuronal activity by bilateral microinjections of fluorescent muscimol (a GABA(A) receptor agonist tagged with a fluorophore that allowed visualization of the injections) into both the LPGi and the raphe magnus nucleus prevented the inhibitory effect of noxious stimuli > or = 48 degrees C on the cardiac baroreflex. Bilateral microinjections of granisetron (a 5-HT(3) antagonist) within the nucleus tractus solitarius also prevented the inhibition of cardiac baroreflex elicited by noxious stimuli > or = 48 degrees C. These results show that activation of serotonergic cells in the LPGi is critical to trigger nucleus tractus solitarius-mediated cardiac baroreflex inhibition elicited by intense thermal noxious stimuli.

Critical role of B3 serotonergic cells in baroreflex inhibition during the defense reaction triggered by dorsal periaqueductal gray stimulation.

The present study was designed to identify the serotonergic pathway causing baroreflex inhibition associated with the defense reaction in rats. Under conditions that produce physiological responses typical of the defense reaction, electrical stimulation of the dorsal periaqueductal gray (dPAG) was found to double c-Fos immunoreactive serotonergic neurons within the mid-rostrocaudal extent of the B3 group (which comprises the raphe magnus and the lateral paragigantocellular reticular nuclei) in anesthetized rats. Local blockade of neuronal activity by microinjection of muscimol (a GABA(A) receptor agonist) directly into the B3 region prevented the inhibitory effect of dPAG activation on the cardiac baroreflex. Conversely, neuron activation by local application of D,L-homocysteic acid into B3 region caused baroreflex inhibition that was suppressed by microinjection of granisetron (a 5-HT(3) antagonist) into the nucleus tractus solitarius. These results show that activation of serotonergic cells in the mid-portion of B3 group is critical to trigger baroreflex inhibition occurring during the defense reaction evoked by dPAG stimulation.